Posts Tagged ‘Causes’

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The leading risk factor for lung cancer is smoking. More than 80% of lung cancers are due to cigarette smoking. The longer a person has been smoking and also the more cigarettes a person smokes a day, the greater the risk is for developing lung cancer. Not only are smokers vulnerable to lung cancer, but the people around them are at a greater risk as well due to breathing second-hand smoke. Non-smokers who are married to smokers are at a 30% greater risk than non-smokers who are married to non-smokers. Marijuana cigarettes may also increase the risk of lung cancer since they contain many of the same cancer-causing agents that tobacco cigarettes have and are inhaled more deeply.

Lung cancer most commonly begins in the cells that line your lungs. Smoking causes the majority of lung cancers — both in smokers and in people exposed to secondhand smoke. But lung cancer also occurs in people who never smoked. In these cases, there may be no clear cause of lung cancer. Doctors have identified factors that may increase the risk.

Lung cancer is one of the most common cancers in the world. It is a leading cause of cancer death in men and women in the United States. Cigarette smoking causes most lung cancers. The more cigarettes you smoke per day and the earlier you started smoking, the greater your risk of lung cancer. High levels of pollution, radiation and asbestos exposure may also increase risk.

Causes of Lung Cancer

Smoking: smoking remains the greatest risk factor for lung cancer. Your risk of lung cancer increases with the number of cigarettes you smoke each day and the number of years you have smoked. Quitting at any age can significantly lower your risk of developing lung cancer.

Diet: Scientists are studying many different foods to see how they may change the risk of getting lung cancer. However, any effect diet may have on lung cancer risk is small compared with the risk from smoking. Eating a lot of fat and cholesterol might increase risk of lung cancer. Drinking a lot of alcohol may raise risk as well.

Family History: Studies have found a chromosome that may be resposible for lung cancer. The chromosome can be inherited. If you have had lung cancer before, there is a chance you may develop another type of lung cancer.

Air pollution from vehicles, industry, and power plants can raise the likelihood of developing lung cancer in exposed individuals. Up to 1% of lung cancer deaths are attributable to breathing polluted air, and experts believe that prolonged exposure to highly polluted air can carry a risk similar to that of passive smoking for the development of lung cancer.

Symptoms of Lung Cancer

People often decide to visit the doctor only after they have been bothered by certain complaints over a period of time. Individuals who have lung cancer frequently experience symptoms such as the following:

Metastasis to the bones is most common with small cell type cancers but also occurs with other lung cancer types. Lung cancer that has metastasized to the bone causes bone pain, usually in the backbone (vertebrae), the thighbones, and the ribs.

Shortness of breath usually results from a blockage to the flow of air in part of the lung, collection of fluid around the lung (pleural effusion), or the spread of tumor throughout the lungs.

A cough that does not go away or gets worse over time should be evaluated by a health-care provider.

Chest pain is a symptom in about one-fourth of people with lung cancer. The pain is dull, aching, and persistent and may involve other structures surrounding the lung.

Wheezing or hoarseness may signal blockage or inflammation in the lungs that may go along with cancer.

Stomach cancer is more readily treated when caught early. Unfortunately, by the time stomach cancer causes symptoms, it’s often at an advanced stage and may have spread beyond the stomach. Yet there is encouraging news. You can reduce your risk of stomach cancer by making a few changes in your lifestyle. It is hard to diagnose stomach cancer in its early stages. Indigestion and stomach discomfort can be symptoms of early cancer, but other problems can cause the same symptoms. In advanced cases, there may be blood in your stool, vomiting, unexplained weight loss, jaundice or trouble swallowing.

Stomach cancer is more common in developing nations, while becoming less common in Western countries including Australia. At present, stomach cancer is still the fourth most common cause of death from cancer. There appear to be two types of gastric (stomach) cancer. Cancer of the stomach, or gastric cancer, is a disease in which stomach cells become malignant (cancerous) and grow out of control, forming a tumor. Almost all stomach cancers (95%) start in the glandular tissue that lines the stomach. The tumor may spread along the stomach wall or may grow directly through the wall and shed cells into the bloodstream or lymphatic system. Once beyond the stomach, cancer can spread to other organs.

Cells from malignant tumors can spread (metastasize) to other parts of the body. Cancer cells spread by breaking away from the original tumor and entering the bloodstream or the lymphatic system. The cells invade other organs and form new tumors that damage these organs. The spread of cancer is called metastasis. There are about 9,000 new cases of stomach cancer diagnosed every year and it’s more common in men, particularly in late middle age. Stomoch cancer is on the decrease and is now about half as common as it was 30 years ago.

Causes of Stomach Cancer

Tobacco and alcohol use. Tobacco use can irritate the stomach lining, which may help explain why smokers have twice the rate of stomach cancer that nonsmokers do. Alcohol has been associated with an increased risk of stomach cancer, but the link between the two isn’t clear.

Type A blood: Blood type groups refer to certain substances that are normally present on the surface of red blood cells and some other types of cells. These groups are important in matching blood for transfusions. For unknown reasons, people with type A blood have a higher risk of getting stomach cancer.

Cancer can either be malignant or benign. Benign cancer is curable, meaning that there is some medical way of being able to provide a curing solution to the cancer-hit part of the body. On the other hand, malignant cancer is a lot more serious since this means that cancer has developed into something complicated where medical resources have close to lesser chances of medicinal resolution.

People who have pernicious anaemia (an autoimmune condition where the lining of the stomach becomes thin, less acid is produced and anaemia develops due to lack of vitamin B12), atrophic gastritis, or a hereditary condition of growths in the stomach are at a higher risk of developing this type of cancer.

A diet high in salt and nitrates and low in vitamins A and C increases the risk for stomach cancer. Other dietary risk factors include food preparation (e.g., preserving food by smoking, salt-curing, pickling, or drying) and environment (e.g., lack of refrigeration, poor drinking water). A diet high in raw fruits and vegetables, citrus fruits, and fiber may lower the risk for stomach cancer.

Stomach polyps may become cancerous (malignant) and are thus removed. Adenocarcinoma of the stomach is particularly likely to develop if the polyps consist of glandular cells, if the polyps are larger than ¾ inch (2 centimeters), or if several polyps exist.

Exposure to certain dusts, molds, fumes, and other environmental agents at home or in the workplace has been linked to a higher than average risk of stomach cancer.Some experts believe that smoking might increase stomach cancer risk.

Lung cancer may be the most tragic cancer because in most cases, it might have been prevented, 87% of lung cancer cases are caused by smoking. Lung cancer has long been the most common cause of cancer death in men and since 1987 it has also become the most common cause of cancer death in women. Lung cancer is the second most commonly occurring form of cancer in most western countries and although the lung cancer incidence is less common in developing countries, the rapid increase in the popularity of smoking will see the number of lung cancer sufferers in those countries quickly catch up with the western world.

Lung cancers can arise in any part of the lung, and 90%-95% of cancers of the lung are thought to arise from the epithelial, or lining cells of the larger and smaller airways (bronchi and bronchioles); for this reason, lung cancers are sometimes called bronchogenic carcinomas or bronchogenic cancers.

The most common type of lung cancers are epidermoid carcinoma, small cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma and large cell carcinoma.

Most experts agree that lung cancer is attributable to inhalation of carcinogenic pollutants by a susceptible host. Who is most susceptible? Any smoker over the age of 40, especially if they began smoking before the age of 15, have smoked 20 or more for 20 years, or worked with or near asbestos. Two other factors also increase susceptibility: exposure to carcinogenic industrial and air pollutants (asbestos, uranium, arsenic, nickel, iron oxides, chromium, radio active dust, and coal dust.) and familial susceptibility.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

Because early lung cancer usually produces no symptoms, the disease is often in an advanced stage when first diagnosed. Late stage signs are: with epidermoid and small cell carcinoma; smokers cough, hoarseness, wheezing, dyspnea, hemoptysis and chest pain. With adenocarcinoma and large cell carcinoma; fever, weakness, weight loss, anorexia and shoulder pain. In addition, hormone production which regulates various body functions may also be affected.

DIAGNOSIS

Firm diagnosis requires chest x rays, sputum cytology, CT scanning, bronchoscopy the examination of pleural fluid and biopsies. Other tests to detect metastasis include bone scans, bone marrow biopsy and CT scans of the brain and abdomen.

METASTASES

Lung cancer most often spreads to the liver, the adrenal glands, the bones, and the brain. Lung cancer that has metastasized to the bone causes bone pain, usually in the backbone (vertebrae), the thighbones, and the ribs. Lung cancer that spreads to the brain can cause difficulties with vision and weakness on one side of the body.

Lung cancer may grow into certain nerves in the neck, causing a droopy eyelid, small pupil, sunken eye, and reduced perspiration on one side of the face; together these symptoms are called Horner’s syndrome (see Autonomic Nervous System Disorders: Horner’s Syndrome). Lung cancer may grow directly into the esophagus, or it may grow near it and put pressure on it, leading to difficulty in swallowing. Lung cancer may also spread through the bloodstream to the liver, brain, adrenal glands, spinal cord, and bone.

TREATMENT

Treatment for lung cancer depends on the cancer’s specific cell type, how far it has spread, and the patient’s performance status. If investigations confirm lung cancer, CT scan and often positron emission tomography (PET) are used to determine whether the disease is localised and amenable to surgery or whether it has spread to the point where it cannot be cured surgically. Treatment is usually a combination of surgery, chemotherapy and radiation therapy.

Surgery is usually the first option. Chemotherapy can be used as a first line treatment for lung cancer or as additional treatment after surgery. Radiation therapy can be directed at your lung cancer from outside your body (external beam radiation) or it can be put inside needles, seeds or catheters and placed inside your body near the cancer (brachytherapy). Radiation therapy can be used alone or along with other lung cancer treatments. Radiation therapy can also be used to lessen side effects of lung cancer.

Treatment may not be as effective for patients with bone or liver metastases from lung cancer, excessive weight loss, ongoing cigarette use, or pre-existing medical conditions such as heart disease or emphysema. At some point, if you and your oncologist or primary care physician agree that treatment no longer is advisable, hospice care can provide comfort.

Information about Cancer

Cancer is a group of more than 100 different diseases. Cancer occurs when cells become abnormal and keep dividing and forming more cells without control or order, forming a growth or tumor. Benign tumors are NOT cancer; malignant tumors are cancer. Cancer stem cell content and the intrinsic radio sensitivity of cancer stem cells is thought to vary between tumors, thereby affecting their radio curability. Most cancers are named for where they start. For example, lung cancer starts in the lung, and breast cancer starts in the breast. The spread of cancer from one part of the body to another is called metastasis.

Symptoms and treatment depend on the cancer type and how advanced it is. Treatment plans may include surgery, radiation and/or chemotherapy. Causes Of Cancer Cells are the building blocks of living things. Cancer grows out of normal cells in the body. Normal cells multiply when the body needs them, and die when the body doesn’t. Cancer appears to occur when the growth of cells in the body is out of control and cells divide too rapidly. It can also occur when cells “forget” how to die. There are many different kinds of cancers. Cancer can develop in almost any organ or tissue, such as the lung, colon, breast, skin, bones, or nerve tissue. The mutation in the DNA changes these instructions, so that the cells carry on growing. This causes the cells to reproduce in an uncontrollable manner producing a lump of tissue, known as a tumors.

Types Of Cancer Breast cancer,prostate cancer,lung cancercancer of colon, or rectum,bladder cancer, and ovarian cancer. Symptoms Of Cancer Symptoms of cancer depend on the type and location of the tumor. For example, lung cancer can cause coughing, shortness of breath, or chest pain, while colon cancer often causes diarrhea, constipation, and blood in the stool. Local symptoms – these occur when the cancer is contained in one part of your body. changes in bowel or bladder habits, a sore that does not heal, unusual bleeding or discharge, thickening or lump in the breast or any other part of the body, indigestion or difficulty swallowing, obvious change in a wart or mole, or nagging cough or hoarseness.

Treatment Of Cancer Treatment also varies based on the type of cancer and its stage. The stage of a cancer refers to how much it has grown and whether the tumor has spread from its original location If the cancer is confined to one location and has not spread, the goal for treatment would be surgery and cure. If the tumor has spread to local lymph nodes only, sometimes these can also be removed. Information about cancer treatment, including surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, clinical trials, proton therapy, complementary medicine, cutting edge technologies, Surgical Oncology, Targeted Therapies and Vaccine Therapies. Complementary medicine techniques such as acupuncture, meditation, and yoga could be a helpful addition to your regular medical treatment. Includes research on complementary techniques and ways to find qualified practitioners. If all of the cancer cannot be removed with surgery, the options for treatment include radiation, chemotherapy, or both. Some cancers require a combination of surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy.

Bone cancer is rare and accounts for less than 1% of all new tumors. Not all bone tumors are fatal in fact benign (non cancerous) abnormalities are more common than malignant ones. Most bone cancers are secondary and have been spread from another site. Primary bone cancer which starts in the bone is quite rare constituting less than one per cent of all malignant tumors. They are more common in males, especially in children and adolescents. The most common type of primary bone cancer is osteosarcoma. This type of carcinoma usually affects young adults. It can affect any bone, but the arms, legs and pelvis are more commonly affected. Other less common forms of primary bone cancer include Ewing sarcoma, malignant fibrous histiocytoma and chondrosarcoma.

Primary Bone Cancer

The causes of primary bone tumours are not known; however, adults who have Pagets disease (a bone disease) may have an increased risk.

Secondary bone cancer

Secondary bone cancer is the most common bone cancer. It is a carcinoma that starts somewhere else in the body and spreads (metastasises) to the bone. The most common cancers that spread to the bone originate in the breast, prostate, lung, kidney and thyroid.

Reticulum cell sarcoma of the bone

A cancerous tumor of the bone marrow presenting in more males than females.

Leukaemia

Cancer of the blood, which starts in the bone marrow

Symptoms of bore cancer

Symptoms tend to develop slowly and depend on the type, location, and size of the tumor. The signs and symptoms of bone cancer include: painful bones and joints, swelling of bones and joints, problems with movement, susceptibility to fractures. Less common symptoms include: unexplained weight loss, tiredness, fever and sweating.

Remember bone cancer is very rare so if you have any of these symptoms it is likely to be caused by another condition. Always see your doctor if you have for a diagnosis.

Causes

Although bone cancer does not have a clearly defined cause, researchers have identified several factors that increase the likelihood of developing these tumors. A small number of bone cancers are due to heredity.

Diagnosis

Bone cancer can present itself in any of the bones of the body, but it is diagnosed most often in the long bones of the arms and legs.

Diagnosing bone cancer involves a number of tests, including: X-rays and bone scans to show the exact location and size of the cancer (these are always done prior to biopsy), bone biopsy where a small sample of the cancer is removed from the bone and examined in the laboratory for the presence of malignant cells, Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scan similar to a CT scan but uses magnetism instead of x-rays to build three-dimensional pictures of your body.

Treatment

The treatment and prognosis of bone cancer depend upon multiple factors including the type and extent of the cancer, the patient’s age and overall health status. Tumors may be treated with surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these.

Primary bone cancers:

The tumor, surrounding bone tissue and nearby lymph nodes are surgically removed. In severe cases, the affected limb may need to be amputated, but this is rare. Treatment may also include radiotherapy (x-rays to target and kill the cancer cells) and chemotherapy (anti-cancer drugs). These may be given before surgery, to shrink the cancer and/or afterwards to destroy any remaining cancer cells.

Secondary bone cancer:

Treatment depends on the treatment for the original tumor, but usually includes chemotherapy, radiotherapy or hormone therapy. Surgery may be needed to strengthen the affected bone.

Prognosis

Overall, the chance of recovery (prognosis) for bone cancers has improved significantly since the development of modern chemotherapy. The chance of recovery will depend on a variety of influences; if the cancer has spread, the type of bone cancer, the size of the tumour, location, the person’s general health and other individual factors.

If the tumor is very small and localized, the five-year survival rate is close to 90 percent. If the cancer has begun to spread, however, survival becomes more difficult. The five-year survival rate is only about 60 percent, and the prognosis is poor once the cancer spreads.

Bone cancer in cats and dogs

Bone carcinoma in dogs and cats can be a challenging disorder. Osteosarcoma is by far the most common bone tumour if dogs, usually striking the leg bones of larger breeds. Chemotherapy significantly prolongs the survival of animals with osteosarcoma when used in conjunction with surgery. For dogs Cisplatin alone or in combination with doxorubicin markedly improves survival time to a median of 8-10 months with the percentage of dogs alive after11 months at 50%.

Feline Osteosarcoma unlike its canine counterpart it has a much lower rate of metastasis and longer term survival can be expected with complete excision. Median survival for cats with osteosarcoma is approximately 2 years with many cats outreaching that.

Kidney cancer or renal carcinoma usually occurs in older people and accounts for about 2 to 3% of cancers in adults, affecting about twice as many men as women. In adults, the most common type of kidney tumor is renal cell carcinoma, which begins in the cells that line the small tubes within your kidneys. Kidney cancer rarely strikes children and young adults; the exceptions are a pediatric kidney cancer called Wilms tumor and some forms of hereditary kidney cancer syndromes, such as von Hippel-Lindau disease.

Causes of Kidney Cancer

The causes are not known, however external factors, such as smoking and obesity, have been related to a higher incidence of kidney cancer and changing environmental factors as well as population aging has seen an increase in the presentation of this form of cancer.

Signs and Symptoms

Kidney cancer symptoms are often overlooked because tumours are usually slow growing and not suspected until the patient begins to experience symptoms such as blood in the urine, pain, tiredness and a palpable mass. Since back pain is common among people over 40 years of age, such pain is often ignored and the presence of kidney cancer can go undetected. Kidney cancer may also cause high blood pressure.

Risk Factors

The risk of developing kidney cancer is four times higher if a close relative has had kidney cancer. Being on dialysis for many years is a risk factor for kidney cancer.

People who have had bladder cancer are more likely to develop kidney cancer, and vice versa. About three per cent of kidney cancer patients have inherited a damaged gene that will make it likely the cancer will also be found in their second kidney.

Prevention

Not smoking is the most effective way to prevent kidney cancer and it is estimated that the elimination of smoking would reduce the rate of renal pelvis cancer by one-half and the rate of renal cell carcinoma by one-third.

Other factors that may decrease the risk of developing kidney cancer include: maintaining a normal body weight, a diet that is high in fruits and vegetables, especially in bananas and root vegetables such as carrots, maintaining normal blood pressure and limited exposure to environmental toxins.

Diagnosing Kidney Cancer

Cancer of the kidney is most commonly detected with either computed tomography (CT) scan, ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Cystoscopy can rule out associated bladder cancer. Kidney cancer cells may also break away from the original tumor and spread (or metastasize) to other parts of the body such as the lymph nodes, bones or lungs, with about one third of cases showing metastasis at the time of diagnosis.

Types of Kidney Cancer

Almost 85% of this tumor are renal cell carcinomas. A less common type of kidney is Papillary carcinoma. Other rare kidney cancers include: Renal sarcoma, Collecting Duct carcinoma, Medullary and Chromophobe carcinomas.

Treatment

Radical nephrectomy with or without the removal of lymph nodes offers the only cure but treatment of kidney cancer may include: surgery, arterial embolization, radiation therapy, biological therapy or chemotherapy depends upon the stage of the disease and the patient’s overall health.

Nephrectomy or removal of the entire organ including the adrenal gland, adjacent lymph nodes and surrounding normal tissue has been the norm, but recent research shows that removal of just the tumor, produces similar survival rates and offers less chance of subsequent renal failure in selected cases.

Scientists have also isolated the gene responsible for VHL disease, and this discovery offers exciting future possibilities for improved diagnosis and treatment of some kidney cancers. Various combinations of interleukin-2, interferon, and other biologic agents and even vaccines developed from cells removed from the kidney cancer are also being investigated.

Survival Rates

With prompt and appropriate treatment, the kidney cancer mortality rate is fairly low, unfortunately kidney cancer has a tendency to spread early, especially to the lungs, sometimes before symptoms develop. The five year survival rate is around 90-95% for tumors less than 4 cm. For larger tumors confined to the kidney without venous invasion, survival is still relatively good at 80-85%. If it has metastasized to the lymph nodes, the 5-year survival is around 5 % to 15 %. If it has spread metastatically to other organs, the 5-year survival rate is less than 5 %.

An important factor for those with this form of cancer and for that matter with all cancers is that assertive patients who actively work to overcome cancer often increase the odds of survival, live longer, and enjoy life more.

Pancreatic cancer begins in the tissues of your pancreas, a large organ that lies horizontally behind the lower part of the stomach. Pancreatic cancer occurs most commonly in men between the ages of 35 and 70, it is the fourth most common cause of cancer mortality (behind lung cancer, colorectal cancer and breast cancer). Pancreatic cancer is usually an adenocarcinoma and it usually arises from the pancreatic duct cells which make up the major part of the pancreas.

Cause of pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic cancer is caused by damage to genes, but it is not known exactly why this damage happens. Evidence suggests that it is linked to exposure to carcinogens such as; cigarettes, food high in fat and protein and food additives. Possible predisposing factors are chronic pancreatitis, diabetes mellitus and chronic alcohol abuse.

There is some evidence that people who don’t eat many fresh vegetables and fruits are more at risk from pancreatic cancer. Being overweight may cause a small increase in the risk of pancreatic cancer. Some industrial chemicals called chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents have been linked to pancreatic cancer, although they are unlikely to be a major factor. Other chemicals and exposures that have been linked to an increased risk of pancreatic cancer in some studies include pesticides, radiation, nickel, chromium and iron.

The average age of onset of pancreatic cancer is between 70 to 80 but heavy smokers and heavy drinkers present with pancreatic cancer an average of seven to 10 years earlier than the rest of the population.

Signs and symptoms of pancreatic cancer

The most common are weight loss, abdominal or low back pain, jaundice and diarrhea.

Other more general effects include; fever, skin lesions, depression, anxiety and a premonition of impending death. Ascites ( fluid retention in the abdomen ) can be a sign of pancreatic tumors.

Diagnosis

It is very difficult to diagnose pancreatic cancer as the pancreas is so deep within the body and symptoms vary depending on the exact location of the tumor in the pancreas and which cells or function of the pancreas is affected by the tumour or cancer. Unfortunately the symptoms of pancreatic cancer can also be quite vague and non specific and may be caused by many other more common and less serious conditions.

Pancreatic cancer typically spreads rapidly and is seldom detected in its early stages, which is a major reason why it is a leading cause of cancer death. Pancreatic cancer specialists believe that anyone over 50 who develops diabetes and has unexplained weight loss should be investigated for other pancreatic disease. Courvoisier sign defines the presence of jaundice and a painlessly distended gallbladder as strongly indicative of pancreatic cancer and may be used to distinguish pancreatic cancer from gallstones.

Treatment

Treatment for pancreatic cancer depends on the stage and location of the cancer as well as on your age, overall health and personal preferences. The first goal of pancreatic cancer treatment is to eliminate the cancer, when possible. When that isn’t an option, the focus may be on preventing the pancreatic cancer from growing or causing more harm. Pancreatic cancer is relatively resistant to medical treatment and the only potentially curative treatment is surgery. Radiation therapy for pancreatic cancer can palliate pain but does not affect the patients survival.

Gemcitabine was approved by the US FDA in 1998 after a clinical trial reported improvements in quality of life in patients with advanced pancreatic cancer. Management of pain and other symptoms is an important part of the treatment of advanced pancreatic cancer.

Prognosis

Pancreatic cancer often has a poor prognosis, even when diagnosed early and the median survival period from the time of diagnosis until demise is arguably the worst of any of the cancers. The best predictors of long term survival after surgery are a tumor diameter of less than 3 cm, no nodal involvement, negative resection margins, and diploid tumor DNA content.

Due to difficulties in diagnosis, the aggressive nature of pancreatic cancer and the limited systemic treatments available, the five-year survival rate for patients who have pancreatic adenocarcinoma is only about 5%. For pancreatic cancer that cannot be removed completely with surgery, or cancer that has spread beyond the pancreas, cure is not currently possible and the average survival is usually less than 1 year.

Bladder cancer is a type of cancer that occurs in your bladder, a balloon-shaped organ in your pelvic area that stores urine. It is the fourth most common type of cancer in men and the eighth most common type in women. Tumors can develop on the surface of the bladder wall or in more severe cases, within the wall and into the underlying muscles. Cancer in the bladder typically affects older adults, though it can occur at any age. Bladder tumors are 2 to 3 times more common in men.

Causes of Bladder Cancer

Smoking, gender, and diet can affect the risk of developing bladder cancer. Bladder carcinomas are also associated with industrial exposure to aromatic amines in dyes, paints, benzedine, nitrates, solvents, leather dust, inks, combustion products, rubber, and textiles. The period between exposure to the carcinogen and development of symptoms is about 18 years.

There is currently limited evidence that diet plays a part in the development of bladder cancer, but a diet high in fruit and vegetables and low in fat may help reduce the risk. Urinary infections, kidney and bladder stones, and other causes of chronic bladder irritation have been linked with bladder cancer (especially squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder), but they do not necessarily cause bladder cancer.

Signs of Bladder Cancer

In early cases around 25% of patients have no symptoms. Commonly the first sign of bladder tumours is blood in the urine, pain after urination, urinary frequency and dribbling. However, these signs and symptoms are not specific to bladder cancer, and may also be caused by non-cancerous conditions, including prostate infections and cystitis.

Types of Bladder Cancer

Cancers are divided into superficial and invasive disease. Superficial bladder cancer is limited to the innermost linings of the bladder. Invasive bladder cancer has at least penetrated the muscular layer of the bladder wall. Less than 5% of bladder cancers in the United States are squamous cell carcinomas, however, worldwide this is the most common form, accounting for 75% of bladder carcinoma in underdeveloped nations. Urothelial carcinoma (transitional cell carcinoma) is by far the most common type of bladder cancer in the United States.

Diagnosis of Bladder Cancer

Cancer in the bladder is usually curable if it is diagnosed while the cancer is still contained in the bladder, and up to 80% of tumors are diagnosed at this early stage. A biopsy for bladder cancer is usually done during cystoscopy. CT and Ultrasound scans, urinalysis and arteriography may also be done.

Treatment for Bladder Cancer

Treatments include bladder cancer surgery, radiation, chemotherapy and biologic therapy. The stage and grade of the cancer provides important information and can help guide treatment. Superficial bladder tumors are surgically removed with chemotherapy being added to the treatment regime to help prevent recurrence. Radical cystectomy and urinary diversion (an external bag) is usually undertaken for invasive bladder cancer.

Several new compounds have shown activity against transitional cell bladder cancer and are now being tested in combination chemotherapy trials. BCG immunotherapy is the most effective intravesical therapy and involves a live attenuated strain of Mycobacterium bovis. Immunotherapy in the form of BCG instillation is also used to treat and prevent the recurrence of superficial tumors. Alternative bladder cancer treatments such as herbal treatment may also be of some benefit.

Risk Reduction

Stopping smoking can reduce the risk of getting bladder cancer and if you have been diagnosed with superficial bladder cancer, stopping smoking will reduce the risk of developing more tumours in the future. Bladder cancer has a recurrence rate of 50%-80% and therefore, doctors recommend cystoscopy screening every three months for the first two years after treatment. People who drink a lot of fluids each day have a lower rate of bladder cancer.

Survival Rates

The prognosis depends on the stage of the cancer, whether it is superficial or invasive bladder cancer, and whether it has spread to other places in the body. Superficial bladder cancer has a good prognosis, with 5-year survival rates of 82-100%. If a tumor has grown into the wall of the bladder but has not spread to other organs, treatment usually involves surgical removal of the tumor, or combined chemotherapy and radiation therapy, with a five-year survival rate of 60% to 75%. Patients with more deeply invasive tumors,which are also usually less well differentiated, and those with lymphovascular invasion experience 5-year survival rates of 30% to 50% following radical cystectomy.

The colon is the part of the digestive system where the waste material is stored. The rectum is the end of the colon adjacent to the anus. Together, they form a long, muscular tube called the large intestine (also known as the large bowel). Tumors of the colon and rectum are growths arising from the inner wall of the large intestine. Benign tumors of the large intestine are called polyps. Malignant tumors of the large intestine are called cancers.

Colon cancer is cancer of the large intestine (colon), the lower part of your digestive system. Rectal cancer is cancer of the last 6 inches of the colon. Together, they’re often referred to as colorectal cancers. About 112,000 people are diagnosed with colon cancer annually, and about 41,000 new cases of rectal cancer are diagnosed each year, according to the American Cancer Society.

Most colorectal cancers begin as a polyp (say “pahl-ip”). At first, a polyp is a small, harmless growth in the wall of the colon. However, as a polyp gets larger, it can develop into a cancer that grows and spreads.

Common Causes of Colon Cancer

Most colorectal cancers arise from adenomatous polyps—clusters of abnormal cells in the glands covering the inner wall of the colon. Over time, these abnormal growths enlarge and ultimately degenerate to become adenocarcinomas.

Adenomas: These polyps have the potential to become cancerous and are usually removed during screening tests such as flexible sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy.

Alcohol: Research has indicated that alcohol increases colorectal cancer risk. Research has also shown that it lowers it, or that it has no effect at all. So which is right? All of it may be. The key appears to be what kind of alcohol you’re drinking.

Inflammatory polyps: These polyps may follow a bout of ulcerative colitis. Some inflammatory polyps may become cancerous, so having ulcerative colitis increases your overall risk of colon cancer.

Age: About 90 percent of people diagnosed with colon cancer are older than 50. Colon cancer can occur in younger people, but it occurs much less frequently.

Environment: Research has shown that environment can play a big part in colon cancer development. Where you live, who’s around you, your occupation, and even when you work may all influence your risk of developing colon cancer.

Diets high in fat are believed to predispose humans to colorectal cancer. In countries with high colorectal cancer rates, the fat intake by the population is much higher than in countries with low cancer rates. It is believed that the breakdown products of fat metabolism lead to the formation of cancer-causing chemicals (carcinogens). Diets high in vegetables and high-fiber foods such as whole-grain breads and cereals may rid the bowel of these carcinogens and help reduce the risk of cancer.

Hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer (HNPCC) syndrome is a genetic condition characterized by early-onset colorectal cancer (i.e., develops before age 50) and multiple colorectal cancers. This syndrome also may be associated with other cancers (e.g., cancer of the small intestine, endometrium, stomach, and renal pelvis).

Smoking: Smoking may increase the risk of developing colorectal cancer by as much as 40%. Smokers may swallow some of the cancer-causing chemicals and this may be an explanation for the increased risk of colorectal cancer in smokers. Some of these substances are also absorbed into the bloodstream thus causing increased risk of many cancers.